弗朗西斯·沃尔克

弗朗西斯·沃尔克（FrancisAmasaWalker,1840年7月2日-1897年1月5日）出生于美国马萨诸塞州，19世纪后期美国著名经济学家，教育家。曾任美国人口普查局总监，麻省理工学院第三任校长、美国统计学会会长、美国经济学会会长、耶鲁大学教授等职。他在南北战争时期曾任联邦陆军准将。

中文名：弗朗西斯·沃尔克

外文名：FrancisAmasaWalker

出生日期：1840年7月2日

逝世日期：1897年1月5日

1、弗朗西斯·沃尔克简介

弗朗西斯·沃尔克（FrancisAmasaWalker,1840年7月2日-1897年1月5日）出生于美国马萨诸塞州，19世纪后期美国著名经济学家，教育家。曾任美国人口普查局总监，麻省理工学院第三任校长、美国统计学会会长、美国经济学会会长、耶鲁大学教授等职。他在南北战争时期曾任联邦陆军准将。

2、弗朗西斯·沃尔克奖

弗朗西斯·沃尔克奖章(TheFrancisA.WalkerMedal)由美国经济协会于1947年设立，它以美国早期经济学家弗朗西斯·沃尔克（FrancisAmasaWalker）名字命名，每五年颁发一次，用于表彰毕生致力于经济学研究且取得重大成就的经济学家，或者在沃尔克奖章评比期间对经济学发展作出杰出贡献且尚在世的美国经济学家。但随着1969年举世瞩目的诺贝尔经济学奖创立，作为经济学领域荣誉的沃尔克奖章略显多余，它于1981年停止颁发。

3、FrancisAmasaWalker

FrancisAmasaWalker(July2,1840–January5,1897)Americansoldierandeconomist,borninBoston,Massachusetts,onthe2ndofJuly1840.Hisfather,AmasaWalker,wasalsoadistinguishedeconomist,who,retiringfromcommerciallifein1840,lecturedonpoliticaleconomyinOberlinCollegefrom1842to1848,wasexaminerinthesamesubjectatHarvardfrom1853to1860,andlectureratAmherstfrom1859to1869.HewasadelegatetothefirstinternationalpeacecongressinLondon1843,andin1849tothepeacecongressinParis.HewassecretaryofstateofMassachusettsfrom1851to1853andarepresentativeinCongress1862-63.Hisprincipalwork,TheScienceofWealth,attainedgreatpopularityasatextbook.Amasa'sson,FrancisWalker,graduatedatAmherstCollegein1860,studiedlaw,andfoughtintheNorthernarmyduringthewholeoftheCivilWarof1861-65,risingfromtherankofsergeant-majortothatofbrevetbrigadier-generalofvolunteers--awardedhimattherequestofGeneralWinfieldScottHancock.

Asasoldierheexcelledinanalysisofthepositionandstrengthoftheenemy.In1864hewascapturedanddetainedforatimeinthefamousLibby*,Richmond.

AfterthewarhebecameeditorialwriterontheSpringfield(Massachusetts)Republican,andin1869wasmadechiefofthegovernmentbureauofstatistics.Hewassuperintendentoftheninthandtenthcensuses(thoseof1870and1880),and(1871-72)commissionerofIndianaffairs.

From1873tohisdeathhisworkwaseducational,firstasprofessor(1873-81)ofpoliticaleconomyintheSheffieldScientificSchoolatYale,andthenaspresidentoftheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology,Boston.Whilesuperintendentofthecensusheincreasedthescopeandaccuracyoftherecords;andatMITheenlargedtheresourcesandnumbersoftheinstitution,whichhad302studentswhenheassumedthepresidencyand1198athisdeath.

Inotherfieldshepromotedcommon-schooleducation(especiallyinmanualtraining),theBostonparksystem,andtheworkofthepubliclibrary,andtookanactivepartinthediscussionofmonetary,economic,statisticalandotherpublicquestions,holdingmanyofficesofhonorandresponsibility.AsanauthorhewroteongovernmentaltreatmentoftheIndians,TheWagesQuestion(1876),Money(1878),LandanditsRent(1883)andgeneralpoliticaleconomy(1883and1884),besidesproducingmonographsonthelifeofGeneralHancock(1884)andthehistoryofhisownSecondArmyCorps(1886).Asaneconomist,fromthetimeoftheappearanceofhisbookonthesubject,hesoeffectivelycombatedtheoldtheoryofthe"wage-fund"astoleadtoitsabandonmentormaterialmodificationbyAmericanstudents;whileinhiswritingsonfinance,from1878totheendofhislife,headvocatedinternationalbimetallism,without,however,seekingtojustifyanyonenationintheattempttomaintainparitybetweengoldandsilver.ArollectionofposthumouslypublishedDiscussionsinEducation(1899)wasmadeupofessaysandaddressespreparedafterhistakingthepresidencyofMIT;theirmostnoteworthyargumentisthatchemistry,physicsandtheothersciencespromoteamoreexactandmoreserviceablementaltrainingthanmetaphysicsorrhetoric.Walker'sgeneraltendencywastowardsarationalconservatism.Onthequestionofrenthecalledhimselfa"RicardianoftheRicardians."TohisWagesQuestionisdueingreatparttheconceptionformedbyEnglishstudentsoftheplaceandfunctionsoftheemployerinmodernindustrialeconomics.Aremarkablefeatureofhiswritingsishistreatmentofeconomictendenciesnotasmereabstractions,butasfactsmakingforthehappinessormiseryoflivingmen.GeneralWalkerdiedinBostononthe5thofJanuary1897.

4、Life

FrancisAmasaWalkerwasborninBoston,Massachusetts,onJuly2,1840,intothefamilyofdistinguishedeconomistandpoliticianAmasaWalker.Hisfatherinevitablyhadgreatinfluenceonhisson’slife,particularlyinhisinterestforlawandeconomics.WalkergraduatedfromAmherstCollegein1860,wherehestudiedlaw.

WiththebeginningoftheAmericanCivilWarin1861,WalkerjoinedtheNorthernarmy.Walkerwasparticularlyskillfulinanalyzingtheenemytroopstrengthandtheirposition.Heshowedhimselftobeagreattactician,andsoonrosefromtherankofsergeant-majortothatofbrevetbrigadiergeneralofvolunteers.TherankwasawardedtohimatthepersonalrequestofGeneralWinfieldScottHancock.HewaswoundedattheBattleofChancellorsville,andcapturedatReam'sStation,wherehewassenttothefamousLibby*inRichmond,Virginia.Hishealthseriouslydeterioratedandafterthewarheleftarmyservice.

WalkerthenworkedaseditoroftheSpringfield,Massachusetts‘‘Republican,’’andchiefofthegovernmentbureauofstatistics.Hesupervisedboththeninth(1870)andtenth(1880)census.HealsoservedasU.S.commissionerofIndianAffairsfrom1871to1872.

Inthe1870s,Walkerturnedentirelytoacademicwork.From1872to1880hewasprofessorofpoliticaleconomyattheSheffieldScientificSchoolatYale.In1878,herepresentedtheUnitedStatesattheMonetaryConferenceinParis,andfrom1885-1892heservedasthefirstpresidentoftheAmericanEconomicAssociation.HewasalsopresidentoftheAmericanStatisticalAssociationfrom1883to1897.

From1881tohisdeath,hewaspresidentofMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT).Hecontributedtowardincreasingtheresourcesandnumbersoftheinstitution.DuringhistenancyatMIT,thenumberofstudentsincreasedfrom302,whenhestartedaspresident,to1198,whenhedied.Healsoworkedonpromotionofgeneralschooleducationandactivelyparticipatedindebatesonmonetaryandothergovernmentissues.

Walkerwrotenumerousbooksandpublications,amongothers:TheWagesQuestion(1876),Money(1878),InternationalBimetallism(1896),andPoliticalEconomy(1884).

WalkerstayedatMITuntilhisdeathinBostononJanuary5,1897.TheWalkerMemorial,astudents'clubhouse,andoneoftheMITbuildingsontheCharlesRiver,wasdedicatedin1916inhishonor.

5、Work

Walkerwasaprolificwriter,especiallyontopicsineconomics,andisregardedasanoriginalandpowerfulthinker.Hetriedtoestablisheconomicsasascientificdiscipline,andusedstatisticsasatoolineconomicstudy.Hisideascanbeclassifiedasneoclassical,withastronginfluenceofAmericanInstitutionalism.Assuch,Walkerrepresentsthedefinitivesplitfromclassicaleconomics.

OneoftheWalker’smostimportantcontributionstoeconomictheoryishistheoryofwages.Withhis1876bookTheWagesQuestion,hedemolishedtheoldClassical“wages-fund”theory.HealsorestructuredtheRicardiantheoryofrentandproposedatheoryofdistributionthatbecameafoundationforlatermarginalproductivitytheoryofdistribution.Hesupplementedthetrinityofland,capital,andlabor,orintermsofdistribution,ofrent,interest,andwages,withanewentity—managementandtheearningsofmanagement:

Underfreeandfullcompetition,thesuccessfulemployersoflaborwouldearnaremunerationwhichwouldbeexactlymeasured,inthecaseofeachman,bytheamountofwealthwhichhecouldproduce,withagivenapplicationoflaborandcapital,overandabovewhatwouldbeproducedbyemployersofthelowestindustrial,orno-profits,grade,makinguseofthesameamountsoflaborandcapital,justasrentmeasuresthesurplusoftheproduceofthebetterlandsoverandabovewhatwouldbeproducedbythesameapplicationoflaborandcapitaltotheleastproductivelandswhichcontributetothesupplyofthemarket,landswhichthemselvesbearnorent.(QuarterlyJournalofEconomicsApril,1887)

Walkerwasagreatproponentofcapitalistsociety:

Ateverystepofitsprogre*italfollowsonelaw.Itarisessolelyoutofsaving.Itstandsalwaysforself-denialandabstinence"withinterest“astherewardofabstinence."(FirstLessonsinPoliticalEconomy1889)

Hesawindustrializationasbeneficialforthesocietyandadvocatedforentrepreneurship.Walkerarguedthatentrepreneurprofitfunctionsastheirwages,andthushedisregardedMarxistnotionsofclassstrugglebasedontheparasiticnatureofentrepreneurship.Asworkingpeopleworkedforwages,sodoentrepreneurs.Profits,then,areanaddedincrementofmanagement,securedbyforesightandbusinessskill;andsincetheyflowsolelyfromtheentrepreneur,theybelongtohimaloneandnoportionmaybejustlyclaimedforrent,interest,orwages:

Itappearsthatthegainsoftheemployerarenottakenfromtheearningsofthelaboringclass,butmeasurethedifferenceinproductionbetweenthecommonplaceorbad,andtheable,andshrewd,andstrongmanagementofbusiness.(PoliticalEconomy1888).

Walkerwasalsointerestedinmonetaryissues,advocatingbimetallism.Hedidnot,however,seektojustifyanyonenationintheattempttomaintainparitybetweengoldandsilver.

Inhislatercareer,Walkerbecamemoreconservativeinhisstands,anapologistoftheGildedAge,andstaunchcriticofHenryGeorge,socialists,andpopulists.Hewasespeciallyharshonthequestionofimmigration.Hebelievedthatimmigrantsnegativelyinfluencethe“native”population,aswiththegreaterinfluxofimmigrantsthe“qualityofthegeneralpopulationdeteriorates.”Hisviewsweretypicalforhistime,whenDarwiniannotionsofracialinequalityplacedtheAnglo-Saxonraceaboveallothers.WalkerwasparticularlyinspiredbytheworkofAmericansociologistEdwardA.Ross,whoprophesizedtheextinctionofthewhiteraceifgovernmentdidnotreact.

Walkeralsoobservedthatthe“native”Americanfamilysizewasdecreasing,andsoughttoexplainitinsociologicalandeconomicterms.Accordingtohim,astheresultoftheincreasingnumberofimmigrantscomingtoworkforlowerwages,Americansbecomelesswillingtohavelargefamilies,fearingforthefutureoftheirchildren.Walkerthusproposedarestrictedimmigrationpolicy,believingitwouldhaveabeneficialeffectontheU.S.population.Theissueofimmigrationbecameamatterofpublicdebateintheearly1910sand1920sheighteningracialandclasstensions,remaininganactiveproblemthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.

6、Legacy

FrancisA.Walker'sworkTheWagesQuestiongavethefinalblowtotheold"wages-fund"theoryofwages,andassuchlaidthefoundationforJohnBatesClark'sdescriptionsofthemarginalproductsoflaborandcapital.Walker’sinterestinthenatureofmanagementandhisexplicitcategorizationofthecorporation’sprofitintowages,rent,andprofits,wasfoundationaltoFrankHynemanKnight'swork.

7、Publications

Walker,FrancisA.18742006.TheIndianQuestion.AnnArbor:ScholarlyPublishingOffice,UniversityofMichiganLibrary.

Walker,FrancisA.1876.TheWagesQuestion.Macmillan&Co.

Walker,FrancisA.18782001.Money.adamantMediaCorporation.

Walker,FrancisA.1883.Americanagriculture(Censusreport).GovernmentPrintingOffice.

Walker,FrancisA.1883.MoneyinitsRelationtoTradeandIndustry.H.HoltandCo.

Walker,FrancisA.18871985.HistoryoftheSecondArmyCorpsintheArmyofthePotomac.ButternutPress.

Walker,FrancisA.1888.PoliticalEconomy,3rdedition.MacmillanandCo.

Walker,FrancisA.1889.Firstlessonsinpoliticaleconomy.H.HoltandCo.

Walker,FrancisA.1891.Hancockinthewaroftherebellion.PressofG.J.Little&Co.

Walker,FrancisA.18941987.GeneralHancock.OldeSoldierBooksInc.

Walker,FrancisA.1895.TheMakingoftheNation.C.Scribner'sSons.

Walker,FrancisA.18962001.InternationalBimetallism.Honolulu:UniversityPressofthePacific.